Charles Danten
The morphological and psychological changes that domesticated animals have undergone in a relatively short time period to become what they are today are not without strange resemblance to those we have undergone across our own recent evolution. The techniques of domestication – confinement, food deprivation, physical and mental castration, selection for docility, incest, and coercion – were also used to domesticate humans. It could be said that the animal condition is actually an unconscious transposition of the human condition; accordingly, my book, Slaves of Our Affection. The Myth of the Happy Pet, can be considered an allegory, or a metaphor, of the human condition. Animals are indeed the shadow of the human saga. Following are several examples along these lines.
Confinement and food deprivation
To domesticate some of the bigger or more dangerous species like wolves, the size and character of the individuals had to be acted upon. One of the techniques used was food deprivation and confinement. Recent studies have shown that food quality and conditions of captivity have an impact on the weight of offspring at birth, on their vitality, and on longevity. According to specialists, these remarkable physiological changes are attributable to the stress linked to captivity and to hormonal disturbances associated with a physically and psychologically abnormal state of dependence. The increased frequency of disease and the decrease of mobility and general activity also have a strong impact on the size and vigor of the newborn.
Modern-day breeders of Pot-bellied Vietnamese pigs, for example, are quite familiar with the effects of a lack of exercise and nutritional deprivation on animals. Some do not hesitate to keep theirs hungry and in miniscule cages to hinder growth. (17) These methods have actually been known for a very long time and have even been applied to humans. As such, two thousand years ago, the Greeks closed up their children in chests, called gloottokoma, made for this purpose. The Romans underfed their children with the same goal in mind. (18)
After a few generations of this treatment, the facial bones are flattened and saggy, the jaw is shorter, and the teeth, smaller. Chewing is done less efficiently. Limbs are also shorter, and the biomechanics of the body are transformed. Fatty tissues are more abundant and musculature is less developed. At archaeological sites, size is one of the criteria used by anthropologists to identify animals as either domesticated or at least as no longer having lived in their natural habitat. (19)(20)(21)
Food deprivation or an inadequate diet also has a marked effect on sexuality. In nature, the oestrogen cycle depends on food availability. In order to adapt to a chronic lack of nourishment and a short life expectancy, a captive animal reproduces more quickly. It goes from having one heat cycle per year, like wolves, to having two or three depending on the pressure of selection being exerted. (22) It is also sexually precocious. A female dog can come into heat at five or six months of age, while a wolf is only mature at two years. Promiscuity and devious sexual behaviour is the norm in captivity, whereas it is nearly absent in most species living in their ecosystem. (23)(24)(25)
As noted by Konrad Lorenz, like other domesticated animals, humans no longer subjected to natural selection also accumulate irregularities and malformations, which would otherwise be quickly eliminated. (26) In Greece and Turkey for instance, paleopathologists have uncovered thousands of deformed human skeletons dating back to the beginning of sedentary life and agriculture, which show the unmistakable signs of nutritional disease and stunted growth. The hallmark of domestication is a genetic drift that cumulates into marked decadence. (27)
Castration
In addition to acting on the size of animals by food deprivation and confinement, we have sought to calm the natural ardours of more aggressive species and to inhibit unbridled sexual instincts. Castration has been the favoured method of doing so since the beginning of domestication. In the New World, only a few centuries ago, castration was also used to calm those black slaves who tended to revolt or escape a little too often. Theirs is a lesser-known story than that of the eunuchs, or castrated men, in China, Greece, Persia, and ancient Rome. Eunuchs were charged with protecting the harem and some became the irreplaceable confidants of the lords. In the 16th century Chinese imperial court, more than 20,000 eunuchs served as functionaries, guards, messengers, and servants. Finally, there was a time of partiality to castrated choral singers. Farinelli (1705-1782) was among these; he had a brilliant singing career that put him at the personal service of Spain’s Philippe V. The king, who was afflicted with chronic melancholy, found relief only in listening to the miraculous voice of Farinelli, one of the world’s best-known human songbirds. (28)
Selection for docility
While neutering has always been the favoured method of making animals tamer and more docile, it has its limitations: for obvious reasons, you cannot sterilize animals you intend to breed. So, creating animals that were more subdued and manageable also required selecting for docility. As I mentioned earlier, animals with the most pronounced juvenile characteristics were also the most attaching and the most moving; they were the ones that received the most mercy. In other words, the most docile and submissive animals, those that obeyed the most, that let themselves be picked up or taken along, were those which had the best chance of being kept and bred. A recent study has shown that wild foxes raised for fur and selected for their docility towards man will behave like dogs within only twenty generations or so. They seek out human company more and more, and wag their tails. Physically, they shed for longer periods, their ears become floppy, their tails straighten, and their coats change color. The persistence into adulthood of juvenile physical traits and infantile behavior constitutes one of the most striking features of the domestic animal. An adult dog demonstrates behaviors typical of a wolf cub: he seeks frequent attention, he likes to play, he barks, he wiggles, and he crawls submissively. Like a child, he is extremely dependent and, consequently, easily bored. The dog is an eternal adolescent, impetuous and extravagant, and this is probably what makes him so endearing. We would feel very differently about dogs if they outgrew these qualities and acquired social maturity. (29)
It is worth noting that totally dependent animals, whose owners make them lead an almost vegetative existence with limited or no contact with other members of their species, often do not show any sexual impulses; when they do, the impulses are not pronounced or are abnormal and directed towards their adopted master. Some hyper-domesticated males do not raise their leg to urinate and some females do not go into heat, if they do at all, before two or three years of age.
The brain of a captive animal is smaller than that of his wild counterpart and his senses are much less sharp. Dependence is associated with a degeneration of sensorial faculties. Because domestic animals live less intense lives than wild animals, their senses of smell, sight, hearing, taste, and touch are less solicited; as a result, they become dulled. (30)
In human beings, the shift from nature to culture has favored a form of evolution, which caused some profound changes in our morphology and in our psychology. Man’s flat face, high domed skull and large brain, reduced pelt, large eyes, and small teeth are all infant features that we retain into adulthood. (31) Additionally, the civilization process has resulted in a tightly woven network of social interdependency that is directly related to an increase in docility and submissive behavior. (32) In our present consumer world, adults, like children, are extremely sensitive to a lack of attention. Unless they are constantly entertained and encouraged, they are prone to anxiety, boredom, and depression.
Inbreeding
Once an animal is smaller, docile and under control, it can be transformed, molded, and sculpted like a garden plant, according to the needs and desires of its creator. The preferred way to do so is by inbreeding.
By mating brothers and sisters, fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, the desired traits are more quickly manifested – after only a few generations – in higher and higher numbers of the offspring. These traits eventually become fixed in the genes and reproduce themselves with a predictable regularity. Such inbreeding is the cornerstone of domestication. The transformation of a species is possible thanks only to animal incest. (33)
Even in humankind, incest has been used across history to maintain “purity.” Kings, for example, had sex freely with their children. Nobles married kin. In Jewish and Arab communities that practice endogamy, the gene pool becomes so limited that health problems begin to occur more frequently, forcing its members to actively seek new genes outside the community. Today, with few exceptions, we no longer marry next of kin - too dangerous - but we do tend to assemble and marry with likeminded people, a kind of positive “incest,” which leads to cultural, racial, and ethnic preservation.
Coercion
The last stage of the domestication process is training. A domesticated animal must learn at least to behave in a controlled manner, and often to obey commands as well. This is achieved through use of positive and/or negative conditioning:
– Positive conditioning, aka the carrot: a subject is rewarded with some form of reward, such as praise, petting, games, or food, when it performs a desired behavior.
– Negative conditioning: a subject is punished through the removal of a reward.
– Positive punishment, aka the whip: a subject may be beaten with a leash, momentarily choked with a collar, slapped on the head, etc.
In general, farm animals are trained using the third method exclusively. In dogs, methods two and three are often used alternatingly. For those who are quite adept at the art of domination, methods one and two are preferred, for reasons of image, as in the case of animal lovers.
The carrotis also popular for controlling people, especially in older democracies where the whipis used most often on those who do not respond to the softer means of coercion.